First, we can see some major sources that state that lighting Shabbos candles is a Torah Mitzvah.

1) See Midrash Tanchuma, at the beginning of Parshas Noach, which discusses the famous Mishnah in the second chapter of Maseches Shabbos about the three transgressions for which women die in childbirth. The Midrash Tanchuma states that all three of these Mitzvos are from the Torah. Lighting the candle for Shabbos is learned from Yeshayah 58:13, "And you shall call the Shabbos a delight."

2) We can understand the Mishnah better if we look at Siman 429 of the Sefer Yere'im (by Rabeinu Eliezer of Metz, a Talmid of Rabeinu Tam and one of the Ba'alei ha'Tosfos). He writes that before the time of Yeshayah ha'Navi, there was a tradition that one must light a Shabbos candle, and then Yeshayah found an Asmachta in a verse. The Sefer Yere'im lists lighting the Shabbos candle as one of the 613 Torah Mitzvos.

The Yere'im cites the Gemara in Zevachim 18b which states a similar idea in a different context. The Gemara cites certain Halachos (for example, that a non-circumcised Kohen may not serve in the Beis ha'Mikdash) which were actually a tradition from the time of Moshe Rabeinu, but were only connected to a verse by Yechezkel ha'Navi. Similarly, lighting Shabbos candles was started by Moshe Rabeinu but it was only Yeshayah who provided support with a verse.

3) Similarly, the Midrash Lekach Tov (written by one of the Rishonim, about 900 years ago), states in Parshas Vayakhel, on Shemos 35:3, that a tradition was handed down from the time of Moshe Rabeinu to light the Shabbos candle.

Now that we have seen that there are very strong sources for the Mitzvah of lighting Shabbos candles, I hope to discuss in a further reply, b'Ezer Hash-m, the Berachah made on it.

Kol Tuv,

Dovid Bloom

Now to the issue of the blessing on lighting candles on Erev Shabbos.

1) Tosfos Shabbos 25b DH Chovah writes that some want to say that one does not make a Beracha, but Rabeinu Tam said that this is a mistake. The conclusion of Tosfos is that one should make a beracha.

2) The position of the Rosh is very interesting. He writes at the end of Maseches Bechoros, Hilchos Pidyon haBen #1, that we do not find that we make any Beracha that is not mentioned in the Mishna, Tosefta or Gemara because after Ravina and Rav Ashi arranged the Gemara, no new Berachos were made. However, this seems to contradict the Rosh Shabbos 2:18, concerning the beracha on Shabbos candles. Here he agrees to Rabeinu Tam that one does make a beracha, and he provides support for his opinion from Rav Amram Gaon, who of course lived after Ravina and Rav Ashi.

3) I suggest that one can reconcile the position of the Rosh with the help of the Taz Orach Chaim 46:7. The question there is whether one says, as the last of the shorter berachos early in the morning, the Beracha "HaNosen LaYoef Koach", "Who gives strength to the tired". This beracha is not mentioned in the Talmud. The Taz cites the aforementioned Rosh in Bechoros, but then he cites another example where the Rosh writes that we do say a beracha that is mentioned only by the Geonim. The Taz gives the following solution. If there is a custom to make a Beracha, then one should not change this custom, even if the bercaha is not mentioned in the Gemara, because it may be that the Geonim who instituted the Gemara possessed a support from the Talmud that one should say it.

4) I would like to explain this idea a little more. This is based on the idea that is often stated in Rishonim, that the words of the Geonim are "Divrei Kabalah", "Words of Tradition", because the Geonim received their opinions from the Rabbis of the Gemara. I found that the Rosh himself writes this, in Berachos 4:14, that "Kol Divreihem Divrei Kabalah", all the words of the Geonim are tradition. The Rosh writes that therefore one can rely on them. This means that since Rav Amram writes that one makes a beracha on Shabbos candles, one can assume that this beracha was indeed instituted by Chazal, because otherwise the Geonim would not have introduced it, since they also agree that after Ravina and Rav Ashi one cannot make new berachos. The fact that Rav Amram said that one makes this beracha must mean that he knew that Chazal said to make this beracha. For some reason it was not mentioned in the Gemara but that does not mean that Chazal did not say it.

5) According to this Chazal did enact a beracha on lighting Shabbos candles.

Bs'd in a future reply I will discuss lighting Yom Tov candles, and the effect of electricity on the Mitzvah of Shabbos candles.

KOL TUV

Dovid Bloom

Baruch she'Kivanta to the reasoning of Rav Moshe Feinstein zt'l!

In Igros Moshe (Orach Chayim V 20:30), he discusses why nowadays there is an obligation to light Shabbos candles even though we have plenty of light from electric lights. Rav Moshe writes that it might be possible to require lighting candles because of the fact that ocassionally the main generator in the power station breaks down. Even though this is unusual, it still might be sufficient to justify lighting the candles with a Berachah. Chazal would not have made the institution of lighting Shabbos candles in the first place because of this unlikely eventuality, but once they instituted it because in those days there were no electric lights, the occasional possibility of the power cut may represent a sufficient reason to continue lighting with a Berachah.

Kol Tuv,

Dovid Bloom

1) Now to the question of the Mitzvah of lighting Shabbos candles nowadays, when we have lots of electric lights and do not require the light given by the Shabbos candles in order to ensure we should not slip on sticks or stones.

a) There is a question of whether making a Berachah nowadays on the candles is a Berachah l'Vatalah. However, there is another question which is just as serious. When Yom Tov falls on Friday, one lights Shabbos candles on Friday afternoon. But how is one permitted to do this if he does not need the light from these candles at all? Why is this not included in the prohibition of lighting a lamp on Yom Tov for no need? Rav Moshe Feinstein zt'l (Igros Moshe, Orach Chayim V 20:30) writes (see also Shevus Yitzchak by Rav Yitzchak Darzi shlit'a, in the volume on Candle Lighting, page 42, who explains the Igros Moshe) that one has to say that lighting the candles represents "Kavod Shabbos" -- Shabbos is honored by lighting candles. Even though one does not require the actual light, this honor of Shabbos that the candles provide is just as important as preparing food for Shabbos on Yom Tov with the aid of the Eruv Tavshilin.

b) Shemiras Shabbos k'Hilchasah (chapter 43, note 171) cites Rav Shlomo Zalman Auerbach zt'l that possibly because Chazal decided that it is a beautiful Mitzvah to light Shabbos candles with oil, and it is obvious that when one lights such candles one does so for the honor of Shabbos, it follows that one receives enjoyment and happiness from the candles.

c) The aforementioned Shevus Yitzchak (page 45) writes that even though the above reasons for lighting Shabbos candles are applicable (namely, the honor of Shabbos and the enjoyment and happiness from the candles), nevertheless it is also preferable -- when possible -- to light according to the original Takanah of Chazal, i.e. to light in a way that the light needed for the Shabbos meal (which nowadays is usually sufficiently provided by electric lights) should be lit in the place of the meal, for the honor of Shabbos.

d) Therefore, the Shevus Yitzchak writes in the name of Rav Shlomo Zalman Auerbach zt'l and Rav Yosef Shalom Elyashiv zt'l that it is preferable that when the woman of the house lights the Shabbos candles she should also turn on the electric lights and have intention that her Berachah should cover both the Shabbos candles and the electric light. On page 49 he writes in the name of Rav Elyashiv that she may light first either the Shabbos or the electric lights, because the Shabbos candles have the advantage of Kavod Shabbos, while the electric lights have the advantage of more powerful light, and therefore the Berachah is applicable for both.

e) So even though electric lighting is more powerful than candle light, the beautiful Shabbos candles still have the great advantages of honor, joy, and happiness, and these advantages are sufficient to justify a Berachah on Shabbos candles alone. Nevertheless, when possible it is preferable that the Berachah should also cover the electric lights.

2) Finally, to the issue of making a Berachah for lighting candles on Yom Tov:

a) It should first be pointed out that the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chayim 263:5) rules that one makes a Berachah also on Yom Tov.

b) However, there are some opinions that one does not make a Berachah on Yom Tov. One of the major Rishonim, the Orchos Chayim by Rabeinu Aharon of Lunil (beginning of Hilchos Shabbos in the laws of lighting candles on Erev Shabbos), first cites a dispute whether a Berachah is made on the Shabbos candles, but then writes that the custom is to make a Berachah. He adds that the same applies for Yom Tov, but then writes that some rule that one does not say a Berachah on the candles on Yom Tov, because no Shalom Bayis is involved, since on Yom Tov one can light whenever he wants.

c) In addition, as you write, the Rambam does not mention lighting candles on Yom Tov. Also, in Hilchos Berachos (11:3) the Rambam lists Mitzvos mid'Rabanan on which one makes a Berachah. He mentions Shabbos candles, but makes no mention of Yom Tov candles. This appears to suggest that there is no Berachah on Yom Tov candles.

d) The Teshuvos Pe'ulas Tzadik (3:270), by Rav Yechya ben Yosef Tsalach, the Rabbi of Sana'a, Yemen, 1725-1806), writes that he had hardly heard of anyone in his city who said a Berachah on lighting Yom Tov candles. The reason is because the Rambam does not mention this, and it is well known that Yemenite Jews followed the Rambam's rulings very closely. (The footnotes to Pe'ulas Tzadik cites the proof from Hilchos Berachos that I mentioned above.) He writes that in "Tachlal," the Yemenite Sidur, there is no mention of a Berachah on Yom Tov candles and that the ancient custom in Yemen was not to make a Berachah on Yom Tov candles.

e) However, it is very clear from the above discussion that for Shabbos candles the Rambam does say that one must make a Berachah and this was also the Yemenite custom. The entire discussion was about Yom Tov; a Berachah is obligatory on Shabbos candles.

Kol Tov,

Dovid Bloom

Joel, it is very important that you have drawn our attention to the opinion of the Vilan Ga'on on this matter.

1. (a) In his commentary on Shulchan Aruch Orach Chayim 610:2, the Vilna Ga'on writes that all the Poskim disagree with the custom, mentioned by the Shulchan Aruch and Rema, of making a Berachah on Yom Kippur candles. The Ga'on writes that the reason why one should not say a Berachah on this is that it is only a custom. He writes that this even applies according to the opinion of Rabeinu Tam, cited by Tosfos to Berachos 14a, that one does make a Berachah on a Minhag. For this reason, Rabeinu Tam maintains that one makes a Berachah on Hallel on Rosh Chodesh. The Ga'on writes three terse words -- "Kan d'Makom she'Nahagu" -- to explain why, according to Rabeinu Tam, one makes a Berachah on Hallel on Rosh Chodesh but not on Yom Kippur candles.

(b) It seems to me that the Ga'on is referring to the Mishnah in Peaschim 53b, which states that in a place where the custom is to light candles before Yom Kippur night, one should light them, while in a place where the custom is not to light, one does not light. We learn that this issue depends on local custom. Therefore, the Ga'on is telling us that while Rabeinu Tam says that one says a Berachah on Hallel on Rosh Chodesh, this is because it is a universal custom, in contrast to the Berachah for the Yom Kippur candles, where some places do not possess this custom at all.

(c) According to this, it might be possible to resolve what appears to be a contradiction between the Ga'on's stance on ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach and Yom Kippur candles. For ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach, he cited an opinion that one follows the custom even though it is not mentioned by Chazal, while for Yom Kippur he writes that all of the authorities mantain that no Berachah is said. According to what we mentioned above, we may say that in the time of Chazal, ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach was a universal custom, while Yom Kippur lights were never universal, as we see from the Mishnah in Pesachim 53b.

(d) I will explain further what I mean. The Bach (on the Tur, Orach Chayim 46:6, DH Od) writes that in the "Ashkenazic" text of the Gemara, ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach does appear. He writes that a major Rishon, the Semag, writes that one should say ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach. This must mean that in the Semag's text of the Gemara, the Berachah does appear. Therefore, ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach has a stronger basis than the Berachah for Yom Kippur candles, because according to some texts in the Gemara it was universal, while Yom Kippur candles were certainly not universal. The Bach writes that even though many Rishonim do not have ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach in their text of the Gemara, nevertheless Ashkenazim who do possess the text are entitled to rely on our text.

(e) This fits with what the Vilna Ga'on writes, that custom uproots Halachah, because we are entitled to rely on our tradition that the custom in the time of the Gemara was to say ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach.

To summarize, my argument is that, according to the Vilna Ga'on, one should not make a Berachah on Yom Kippur candles because it was never a universal custom, while some say that one may say "ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach" because it could be that everyone said it in the time of Chazal.

2. (a) The Vilna Ga'on, in his commentary on Shulchan Aruch Orach Chayim 46:6, cites sources for the different opinions about whether or not one says the Berachah of "ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach." On the opinion of the Shulchan Aruch that one should not say it, the Vilna Ga'on cites the Rosh (which is consistent with the Rosh that I cited in my second reply earlier), that one should not say any Berachah not mentioned in the Gemara. However, on the opinion of the Rema that the widespread Ashkenazi custom is to say ha'Nosen la'Ya'ef Ko'ach, the Vilna Ga'on cites the Yerushalmi and Maseches Sofrim 14:18 that "custom uproots the Halachah."

(b) The Vilna Ga'on seems to be telling us that there is an opinion that disagrees with the Rosh and maintains that one may sometimes say a Berachah not mentioned by Chazal if the custom follows this.

Kol Tuv,

Dovid Bloom